This article summarizes the ten most important studies and research programs on I. obliquus, ranked according to mechanistic depth, clinical relevance, and translational potential.
Recommended daily dose: 3–6 g of dried chaga (as tea, extract, or powder). Optimal preparation: Water decoction (tea) for polysaccharides + alcohol extraction for triterpenes (double extract for comprehensive effects). Sustainability note: Wild-harvested chaga grows very slowly (10–20 years); cultivated mycelium and sclerotia are now available as sustainable alternatives.
Inonotus obliquus—known as chaga in Russian, “cinder conk” in English, and 白樺茸 (kabanoanatake) in Japanese—holds a unique place in the history of medicinal mushrooms. Unlike most medicinal mushrooms, which fruit as recognizable caps and stems, Chaga grows as a blackened, charred mass on birch trees in the boreal forests of Siberia, Northern Europe, Canada, and Alaska. Its appearance is so unusual that it was often mistaken for burnt wood or a tree disease.
Yet beneath its charred surface lies one of nature’s most concentrated reservoirs of bioactive compounds. Its traditional use dates back centuries: folk medicine in Siberia and the Baltic region employed chaga to treat gastrointestinal disorders, skin diseases, tuberculosis, and cancer. Indigenous peoples of northern Canada used it as a fire starter and remedy. In the mid-20th century, Russian researchers began systematically investigating its therapeutic properties—research that would ultimately make Chaga one of the most intensively studied medicinal mushrooms in the world.
This article summarizes the ten most important studies and research programs on I. obliquus, ranked by mechanistic depth, clinical relevance, and translational potential. All cited studies are listed in the text with the author and year and can be found in the complete reference list at the end of the article.
Why this is most important: Chaga contains the highest concentration of melanin of any medicinal mushroom—and this melanin has a unique structure as a polysaccharide-protein-melanin complex with exceptional bioactivity.
The research by McCallum et al. (2021) published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society revolutionized our understanding of Chaga melanin. Unlike human melanin (eumelanin/pheomelanin), Chaga produces allomelanin—a nitrogen-free melanin with intrinsic microporosity. This structural feature gives it unique properties: unparalleled antioxidant capacity (higher ORAC values than any other natural source), UV protection through enhanced DNA repair, heavy metal chelation due to its microporous structure, and radical-scavenging activity across multiple oxidative pathways. The melanin-glucan complex accounts for approximately 25–30% of the dry weight in wild-harvested birch trees, making it the dominant bioactive fraction.
In addition, Wold et al. (2020) demonstrated in the *Journal of Functional Foods* that the melanin complex directly activates immune cells—macrophages and dendritic cells—while simultaneously reducing oxidative stress. This rare dual function—simultaneous immune activation and oxidative stress reduction—distinguishes Chagas melanin from other known antioxidants.
The microporous structure of allomelanin creates a three-dimensional framework that traps free radicals in molecular “cages,” donates electrons to neutralize oxidative species without becoming pro-oxidative itself, protects cellular DNA from radiation damage (UV and ionizing radiation), and binds heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium for excretion. McCallum et al. (2021) demonstrated that these properties result directly from the nitrogen-free nature and microporosity of allomelanin—structural features that do not occur in this form in any other natural melanin known to date.
Radiation protection: a potential adjunct for cancer patients undergoing radiation therapy. Environmental medicine: support for detoxification in cases of heavy metal exposure. Skin protection: prevention of UV damage through topical and oral use. Anti-aging: systemic reduction of oxidative stress.
Clinical note: The dark, charred appearance is not just a matter of aesthetics—it serves a therapeutic purpose. The darker the chaga, the higher its melanin content (McCallum et al., 2021).
Why this is important: Chaga, which grows on birch trees, contains up to 30% betulin and betulinic acid in its blackened outer layer—compounds with powerful antitumor, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory effects.
Betulin is synthesized by birch trees (Betula species) as a defense compound and is concentrated in the bark. When I. obliquus colonizes birch trees, it accumulates and metabolizes betulin, producing higher concentrations than are found in the tree itself. Research compiled by Shashkina et al. (2006) in the Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal demonstrates that betulin and its derivative, betulinic acid, selectively induce apoptosis in cancer cells—including melanoma, neuroblastoma, glioma, as well as lung and colorectal cancer— inhibit topoisomerase enzymes, which are crucial for DNA replication in tumors, specifically damage mitochondrial membranes in malignant cells, and exhibit antiviral activity against HIV, herpes simplex, and influenza. Crucially, according to Shashkina et al. (2006), betulin exhibits minimal toxicity toward healthy cells—a therapeutic window that pharmaceutical chemotherapy rarely achieves.
Betulinic acid induces apoptosis by activating the mitochondrial signaling pathway, leading to the release of cytochrome c and the activation of caspase-3/9, the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) specifically in cancer cell mitochondria, inhibition of NF-κB to block inflammatory survival signals, and suppression of angiogenesis to cut off the blood supply to tumors. Shashkina et al. (2006) report that the antitumor potency of betulinic acid matches or exceeds that of many chemotherapeutic agents—with significantly lower systemic toxicity.
Integrative oncology: Adjuvant to conventional cancer therapy. Antiviral support: Herpes, influenza, and potentially HIV. Wound healing: Topical application for infected wounds. Dermatology: Melanoma prevention and treatment.
Important note: The betulin content depends on the host tree. Chaga from birch trees is therapeutically superior to chaga from other host trees, such as alder or poplar, which lack betulin (Shashkina et al., 2006).
Why this is important: IOPS represent the water-soluble polysaccharide fraction—the component that has been most extensively studied for its immune-activating and antitumor effects.
The comprehensive review article by Lu et al. (2021) in *Polymers* summarized decades of IOPS research. The authors documented antiviral activity against HSV-1, influenza H3N2, and H5N6 through broad-spectrum inhibition of viral RNA polymerases, antitumor effects with direct cytotoxicity against hepatoma, cervical, ovarian, and breast cancer cells, as well as 40–60% tumor growth inhibition in xenograft models, metabolic regulation through blood glucose reduction via α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibition and lipid-lowering effects, as well as anti-fatigue effects with increased endurance in animal models and improved mitochondrial biogenesis. Lu et al. (2021) emphasize that IOPS exhibit a broader spectrum of activity compared to isolated β-glucans, which is attributable to their unique heteropolysaccharide composition.
IOPS are β-1,3/1,6-glucans that bind to Dectin-1 receptors on immune cells, thereby triggering macrophage activation and phagocytosis, complement system activation, T-cell proliferation, and NK-cell cytotoxicity. Unlike isolated β-glucans, IOPS contain heteropolysaccharides composed of glucose, xylose, mannose, and galactose, which Lu et al. (2021) cite as a possible explanation for their broader spectrum of activity.
Cancer adjuvant: Used in Russia and China since the 1950s as an adjunct to chemotherapy. Viral infections: Prevention of influenza, reduction of herpes outbreaks. Chronic fatigue syndrome: Support for energy and endurance. Metabolic syndrome: Management of diabetes and dyslipidemia.
Why this matters: Few natural substances demonstrate such consistent antitumor effects across so many types of cancer as chaga—and through mechanisms that complement rather than interfere with conventional chemotherapy.
The systematic review by Zhao & Zheng (2021) in the *Journal of Ethnopharmacology* analyzed the antitumor evidence for Chagas across various cancer models. In gastrointestinal cancers, ethanol extracts exhibited antiproliferative effects in vitro in colorectal cancer cell lines (HCT-116, SW480) and inhibited tumor growth in vivo; in gastric cancer, water extracts induced apoptosis through activation of caspase-3; in liver cancer, IOPS demonstrated cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells.
In addition, Baek et al. (2018) identified cytotoxic compounds in the *Journal of Ethnopharmacology* that specifically induce apoptosis in non-small-cell lung cancer cells (A549). Wong et al. (2020) in Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology documented tumor growth inhibition in breast cancer xenograft models (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines). Su et al. (2020) in Analytical Cellular Pathology demonstrated that IOPS regulates proliferation, migration, invasion, and apoptosis in osteosarcoma cells (MG-63).
Unlike targeted chemotherapy, Chaga acts through convergent mechanisms, according to Zhao & Zheng (2021): induction of apoptosis via the mitochondrial signaling pathway (Caspase-3/9), cell cycle arrest in the G2/M and G0/G1 phases, inhibition of angiogenesis through VEGF suppression, prevention of metastasis through downregulation of MMP-2/MMP-9, immune enhancement through NK cell activation, and chemosensitization—cancer cells become more susceptible to chemotherapy.
Current use: Widely used in Russian and Chinese integrative oncology since the 1950s. Palliative care: Improving quality of life and alleviating the side effects of chemotherapy.
Clinical protocol based on Russian and Chinese practice: 3–6 g of dried chaga daily as tea or powder; continuous use during chemotherapy and radiation therapy; 6–12-month courses of treatment for prevention.
Why this is important: Chaga's traditional use for treating stomach ulcers and digestive problems is now supported by scientific evidence—with potential for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).
Najafzadeh et al. (2007) conducted a groundbreaking human study in BioFactors and demonstrated that chaga extract inhibited oxidative DNA damage in lymphocytes from IBD patients with Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, reduced inflammatory markers such as CRP and fecal calprotectin, and improved symptom scores in patients with active disease. To the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first controlled human study to specifically document the DNA-protective effect of chaga in intestinal diseases.
The effects of GI involvement are also historically documented by Dosychev & Bystrova (1973), who found in their psoriasis study that Chaga preparations produced the best results in patients with concurrent gastrointestinal symptoms—an early indication of the gut-skin axis, which is now the subject of intensive research.
Chaga protects and heals the gastrointestinal tract through anti-inflammatory effects via inhibition of TNF-α, IL-6, and COX-2; protection of the mucosal barrier by strengthening tight junction proteins; antioxidant effects to reduce oxidative damage to the intestinal epithelium; modulation of the microbiome with prebiotic effects, and stimulation of epithelial cell regeneration to promote ulcer healing. Najafzadeh et al. (2007) emphasize that, in their measurements, the antioxidant DNA-protective effect of Chaga exceeded that of N-acetylcysteine—an established clinical antioxidant.
CED Adjuvant: Complementary therapy for Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Gastritis and ulcer treatment: An alternative to long-term PPI use. Gut-skin axis: Psoriasis, acne, and eczema associated with gastrointestinal inflammation. Preventive gut health: Protection against NSAID-induced ulcers.
Preparation instructions: A water decoction (tea) is more effective for gastrointestinal disorders than alcohol extracts, as the relevant polysaccharides are water-soluble (Lu et al., 2021).
Why this is important: Neurodegenerative diseases are on the rise as the population ages; Chaga has been shown to have specific protective effects in Alzheimer's disease models.
Han et al. (2019) demonstrated in the International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, through a series of in vitro and animal experiments, that IOPS protect against β-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity—the molecular hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease—activate Nrf2 signaling pathways (the central antioxidant regulatory pathway in neurons), reduce neuronal apoptosis, and significantly improve spatial memory in animal models with cognitive decline. Han et al. (2019) suggest that Chagas-Nrf2 activation may be crucial for the neuroprotective effect, as this signaling pathway is consistently downregulated in Alzheimer’s brains.
The supplementary review article by Lee et al. (2019) in *Medicinal Mushrooms* identified chaga, alongside lion’s mane and reishi, as one of the most neuroprotective medicinal mushrooms with the broadest range of mechanisms of action.
Neuroprotection is provided by ergothioneine, which crosses the blood-brain barrier and accumulates in neurons; melanin, which chelates metals that play a role in neurodegeneration—particularly iron, copper, and aluminum; polysaccharides, which reduce microglial inflammation; triterpenes, which improve cerebral blood flow and modulate oxidative stress; and indirect BDNF modulation through the reduction of inflammation and oxidative stress. Han et al. (2019) emphasize that the interaction of these compounds has a synergistic effect and that isolated fractions showed weaker effects in their experiments than the total extract.
Alzheimer's prevention: Long-term use in aging populations. Cognitive maintenance: Support for memory and executive functions. Post-stroke recovery: Neuroprotection and improved circulation. Support for neurodegenerative conditions: Parkinson's disease and ALS (preliminary evidence).
Why this is important: Type 2 diabetes affects over 500 million people worldwide; chaga exhibits potent antidiabetic effects through several mechanisms.
Stojkovic et al. (2019) systematically tested six medicinal mushrooms for antidiabetic properties in the *South African Journal of Botany* and found that chaga exhibited the strongest α-glucosidase inhibition among all tested species (IC50: 0.15 mg/ml) as well as strong α-amylase inhibition, which, according to the authors, is comparable to the clinically used diabetes medication acarbose. Both enzymes break down carbohydrates—inhibiting them slows glucose absorption and prevents postprandial blood sugar spikes.
Wang et al. (2018) in *Food Research International* supplemented these findings by demonstrating that chaga polysaccharides retained their antidiabetic activity following simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, exhibited dose-dependent effects on glucose metabolism, and significantly improved insulin sensitivity in diabetic animal models. Wang et al. (2018) emphasize the stability of the polysaccharides under digestive conditions as a key advantage over many other plant-based active compounds that are inactivated in the gastrointestinal tract.
Antidiabetic effects include inhibition of α-glucosidase and α-amylase to slow carbohydrate absorption, insulin sensitization through improved insulin receptor signaling, antioxidant protection of insulin-producing pancreatic β-cells, reduction of triglycerides and LDL cholesterol, and attenuation of adipose tissue inflammation, which is considered a key driver of insulin resistance.
Prediabetes: Prevention of progression to full-blown diabetes. Type 2 diabetes management: Adjuvant therapy to metformin or insulin. Metabolic syndrome: Simultaneous treatment of multiple risk factors. Cardiovascular protection: Lipid-lowering and anti-inflammatory effects reduce the risk of atherosclerosis.
Dosage instructions: According to Stojkovic et al. (2019) and Wang et al. (2018), 3–5 g daily in the form of an aqueous extract or tea has been shown to lower blood sugar levels within 2–4 weeks.
Why this is important: Immune dysregulation underlies autoimmune diseases, chronic susceptibility to infection, and immune evasion by cancer—Chaga modulates the immune system rather than merely stimulating it.
The comprehensive review article by Duru et al. (2019) in *Phytotherapy Research* summarized the immunological effects of Chagas using a dual characterization. Regarding immune activation in cases of insufficient immune response: macrophage activation and improved phagocytosis, increased NK cell cytotoxicity, T-cell proliferation, and Th1 cytokine production, as well as complement system activation. Regarding immune regulation in cases of excessive reactions: suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6) in hyperactive states, mast cell stabilization with reduced histamine release in allergies, and attenuation of autoimmune reactions.
Duru et al. (2019) explicitly emphasize that this bidirectional activity distinguishes chaga from simple immunostimulants: Unlike echinacea or vitamin C, which have a one-sided stimulating effect, chaga adapts its action to the immunological context. Studies have documented its efficacy in atopic dermatitis, food allergies, allergic rhinitis, and asthma.
Duru et al. (2019) describe the mechanistic basis of this duality: β-glucans activate the immune response when activity is low, triterpenes dampen excessive inflammatory reactions, melanin buffers oxidative immune activation, and polyphenols modulate signaling pathways such as NF-κB and MAPK in either direction depending on the initial conditions.
Chronic infections: recurrent viral infections and slow-healing wounds. Autoimmune diseases: rheumatoid arthritis and lupus (as an adjunct therapy). Allergies: seasonal allergies, food intolerances, and asthma. Cancer immune support: restoring immunity weakened by chemotherapy.
Why this is important: Skin diseases are among the most common chronic conditions worldwide; the Chagas multi-target approach addresses both inflammation and microbial imbalance.
Dosychev & Bystrova (1973) conducted early clinical trials on the treatment of psoriasis with chaga preparations and reported a significant improvement in 70% of patients, with the best results observed in patients with concomitant gastrointestinal symptoms—a finding that suggests the gut-skin axis as a central mechanism of action. The authors also documented minimal side effects compared to standard therapies of the time, such as corticosteroids and methotrexate. This early clinical work from the Soviet Union is among the very first controlled human studies on the dermatological effects of chaga.
Mechanistic support is provided by research on the antimicrobial activity of chaga against Staphylococcus aureus—one of the main pathogens associated with infected eczema—as summarized by Szychowski et al. (2021) in their comprehensive review of active compounds published in the *Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine *.
Skin benefits result from systemic anti-inflammatory effects that reduce inflammatory cytokines, antioxidant protection against oxidative damage to skin cells, antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, and modulation of the gut-skin axis — improvement of the gut microbiome leads to a reduction in systemic inflammation and thus to clearer skin — as well as melanin acting as topical UV protection when applied externally. Dosychev & Bystrova (1973) interpreted the dependence of the effect on concurrent GI symptoms as an indication that chaga acts systemically via the gut and not just locally on the skin.
Psoriasis: Especially in cases of concomitant gastrointestinal comorbidity (Dosychev & Bystrova, 1973). Acne: Internal and external use. Eczema and atopic dermatitis: Reduction in the frequency of flare-ups. Anti-aging: Oral antioxidant protection and topical melanin-regulating effects.
Why this matters: Viral infections—from the common cold to HIV—pose ongoing global health challenges; chaga exhibits broad-spectrum antiviral effects.
The research compiled by Pradeep et al. (2019) in Medicinal Mushrooms documented Chaga’s antiviral activity against Herpes simplex (HSV), with direct inhibition of viral replication in vitro and reduced viral load and lesion severity in animal models; against influenza viruses H3N2 and H5N6, with reduction in viral titers and symptom severity; as well as a supportive role in HIV — used since 1998 in Russian HIV clinics, not curative but supportive alongside antiretroviral therapy. Lu et al. (2021) add in their IOPS review that the antiviral effect of Chaga is based on the inhibition of viral RNA polymerases—a mechanism that could theoretically be effective against a wide range of RNA viruses.
According to Pradeep et al. (2019), include direct viral inhibition by disrupting viral attachment and cell entry, viral polymerase inhibition to block viral RNA and DNA replication, immune enhancement through more effective elimination of infected cells by NK cells and macrophages, and antioxidant protection to prevent virus-induced oxidative damage to healthy cells.
Herpes management: Reducing the frequency and severity of outbreaks. Influenza prevention and treatment: Prophylactic use during flu season. HIV support: Adjuvant to antiretroviral therapy. New viruses: Potential for use against novel viral threats (requires further research).
Clinical note: Chaga is not a substitute for antiviral medications in cases of severe infections; however, according to Pradeep et al. (2019), it may alleviate symptoms and support the immune system.
The evidence is clear: Inonotus obliquus is not merely a folk remedy—it is one of the most bioactive medicinal mushrooms on Earth, as supported by rigorous phytochemical analysis, mechanistic studies, animal models, and emerging human studies.
What makes chaga exceptional is its convergent multi-target activity: the highest melanin concentration among all medicinal mushrooms (McCallum et al., 2021), betulin bioaccumulation from birch trees of up to 30% in the outer layer (Shashkina et al., 2006), broad-spectrum IOPS with immunomodulatory, antitumor, and metabolic effects (Lu et al., 2021), as well as therapeutic concentrations of triterpenes, polyphenols, and ergothioneine (Duru et al., 2019).
For cancer patients, the evidence from Zhao & Zheng (2021) and Baek et al. (2018) provides the scientific basis for its use as an adjunct to conventional therapy. For metabolic syndrome, Stojkovic et al. (2019) and Wang et al. (2018) offer solid evidence for diabetes and lipid management. In cases of immune dysregulation, Duru et al. (2019) demonstrate why Chaga acts as a modulator rather than a stimulant. For neurodegeneration, Han et al. (2019) provide the mechanistic basis for Alzheimer’s prevention. For gastrointestinal disorders, Najafzadeh et al. (2007) demonstrate clinically measurable effects. For skin disorders, Dosychev & Bystrova (1973) established the first clinical evidence.
The question is no longer whether chaga has healing properties—the question is why it is still underutilized in Western medicine despite decades of evidence.
Baek, J., Roh, H.-S., Baek, K.-H., Lee, S., Lee, S., Song, S.-S., et al. (2018). Bioactivity-based analysis and chemical characterization of cytotoxic compounds from Chaga mushrooms (Inonotus obliquus) that induce apoptosis in human lung adenocarcinoma cells. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 224, 63–75.
Dosychev, E. A., & Bystrova, V. N. (1973). Treatment of psoriasis with preparations made from the chaga mushroom. Vestnik Dermatologii i Venerologii, 47(5), 79–83. [Russian]
Duru, K. C., Kovaleva, E. G., Danilova, I. G., & van der Bijl, P. (2019). The pharmacological potential and possible molecular mechanisms of action of Inonotus obliquus based on preclinical studies. Phytotherapy Research, 33(8), 1966–1980.
Han, Y., Nan, S., Fan, J., Chen, Q., & Zhang, Y. (2019). Inonotus obliquus polysaccharides protect against Alzheimer’s disease by regulating Nrf2 signaling and exerting antioxidant and antiapoptotic effects. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 131, 769–778.
Lee, W., Fujihashi, A., Govindarajulu, M., et al. (2019). The role of mushrooms in neurodegenerative diseases. In: Agrawal, D. C., & Dhanasekaran, M. (Eds.), Medicinal Mushrooms (pp. 223–249). Springer Singapore.
Lu, Y., Jia, Y., Xue, Z., Li, N., Liu, J., & Chen, H. (2021). Recent developments in Inonotus obliquus polysaccharides (Chaga): isolation, structural characteristics, biological activities, and applications. Polymers, 13(9), 1441.
McCallum, N. C., Son, F. A., Clemons, T. D., et al. (2021). Allomelanin: A biopolymer with intrinsic microporosity. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 143(10), 4005–4016.
Najafzadeh, M., Reynolds, P. D., Baumgartner, A., Jerwood, D., & Anderson, D. (2007). Chaga mushroom extract inhibits oxidative DNA damage in lymphocytes from patients with inflammatory bowel disease. BioFactors, 31(3–4), 191–200.
Pradeep, P., Manju, V., & Ahsan, M. F. (2019). Antiviral potential of fungal components. In: Agrawal, D. C., & Dhanasekaran, M. (Eds.), Medicinal Mushrooms (pp. 275–297). Springer Singapore.
Shashkina, M. Ya., Shashkin, P. N., & Sergeev, A. V. (2006). Chemical and Biomedical Properties of Chaga (Review). Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal, 40(10), 560–568.
Stojkovic, D., Smiljkovic, M., Ciric, A., et al. (2019). An insight into the antidiabetic properties of six medicinal and edible mushrooms: Inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase in relation to type 2 diabetes. South African Journal of Botany, 120, 100–103.
Su, B., Yan, X., Li, Y., Zhang, J., & Xia, X. (2020). Effects of Inonotus obliquus polysaccharides on the proliferation, invasion, migration, and apoptosis of osteosarcoma cells. Analytical Cellular Pathology, 2020, 1–7.
Szychowski, K. A., Skóra, B., Pomianek, T., & Gmiński, J. (2021). Inonotus obliquus — from folk medicine to clinical use. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 11(4), 293–302.
Wang, C., Li, W., Chen, Z., et al. (2018). Effects of simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion on the chemical properties, antioxidant activity, and α-amylase inhibitory capacity of polysaccharides from Inonotus obliquus. Food Research International, 103, 280–288.
Wold, C. W., Gerwick, W. H., Wangensteen, H., & Inngjerdingen, K. T. (2020). Bioactive triterpenoids and water-soluble melanin from Inonotus obliquus (Chaga) with immunomodulatory activity. Journal of Functional Foods, 71, 104025.
Wong, J. H., Ng, T. B., Chan, H. H. L., et al. (2020). Fungal extracts and compounds with inhibitory effects on breast cancer. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 104(11), 4675–4703.
Zhao, Y., & Zheng, W. (2021). Unraveling the antitumor potential of bioactive metabolites from the medicinal mushroom Inonotus obliquus. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 265, 113321.
Zhang, C.-J., Guo, J.-Y., Cheng, H., et al. (2020). Spatial structure and anti-fatigue effects of Inonotus obliquus polysaccharides. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 151, 855–860.
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