Oyster Mushroom - Pleurotus ostreatus – Austernpilz – Hiratake – Ping Gu

Oyster Mushroom

Pleurotus ostreatus – Austernpilz – Hiratake – Ping Gu

The cholesterol-lowering mushroom

 

Interesting compounds

  • Lovastatin (syn. Mevinolin (1)): cholesterol-lowering statin (1-4) that reduces very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) levels and stimulates the activity of several antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase (1,5).

  • Pleuran: antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunostimulatory β-glucan (1,6).

  • Significant folic acid (vit. B9) content: 65mg/100g in dry weight (1), hematopoietic effect (7).

  • Ergosterol: 0.124–0.469% in dry matter (1), stimulates bone and cartilage formation (1,7).

  • Volatile organic compounds (e.g., 3-octanone, 3-octanol, 1-octen-3-ol, 1-octanol, benzaldehyde, benzoic acid): antibacterial (7).

  • Laccases: inhibit the proliferation of the hepatitis C virus and its penetration into liver cells in vitro (7).

  • Chitosan: reduces the absorption of dietary fats and cholesterol in the intestine by helping to bind bile salts (1,3).

  • α-Glucans: prebiotic and antioxidant (3), show antiproliferative and apoptotic effects on colon cancer cells in vitro (1).

  • Trehalose: prebiotic (3).

  • Ergothioneine: antidepressant and anti-stress effects (8).

  • Bioactive phenols and flavonoids: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antimutagenic effects (1,9).

  • Nutrient content: protein 10-30%, carbohydrates 38%, fat 1%, iron 9mg/100g in fresh weight, vitamin C 12mg/100g and 30-144 mg/100g, niacin (vit B6) 54 mg/100g and 109mg/100g, high potassium levels 270mg/100g and 306mg/100g in fresh and dry weight, respectively (1,4). Higher copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) content than other cultivated mushrooms (1,10).

Areas of action and applications

  • Metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular diseases – due to low fat content (9):

    • Hypercholesterolemia/dyslipidemia (1-3,6,7,11): clinical studies show lipid-regulating effects (5,12); mushroom consumption lowers triglycerides, total cholesterol, and LDL oxidation (11,13).

    • Diabetes mellitus II (1,3,6): clinical studies show positive effects on regulating blood sugar and insulin levels (11,12,14).

    • Hypertension (15): clinical studies showed improvement in patients with hypertension (12,16).

    • Atherosclerosis: mushroom intake shows positive results in animal models (2,3,11,15).

    • Weight control: reduced weight in obese mice (15).

    • Synthetic statins are one of the most important pharmacological treatments for metabolic syndrome, but they are contraindicated for patients with alcoholism, liver disease, or pregnancy. The main component of the oyster mushroom, lovastatin, can be safely used under these conditions (1).

  • Lung diseases (6):

    • Recurrent respiratory infections: clinical studies with children (9,17), adults (18), and athletes (19) showed benefits of pleuran in treating patients.

    • COPD: improved condition in patients with COPD exacerbations treated with pleuran (20).

  • Anti-cancer effects:

    • Cervical cancer: in vitro antitumor activity (1,4,21-24).

    • Colon cancer: in vitro (1,4,21,22) and in vivo (22,24) antitumor activity.

    • Breast cancer: in vitro (22,23,25) and in vivo (24) antitumor activity.

    • Leukemia: in vitro (9,22,24) and in vivo (22,24) anticancer activity.

    • Melanoma: in vivo antitumor activity (22).

    • Prostate cancer: in vitro antitumor activity (22).

    • Kidney cancer: in vitro antitumor activity (21).

  • Infectious diseases:

    • Viral infections:

      • Herpes simplex virus: patients with acute HSV infections treated with pleuran showed promising results (26), laboratory studies showed activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2 strains (9).

      • Influenza virus: in vitro trials show inhibitory effects (3,9).

      • HIV: in vitro, the ubiquitin-like protein showed inhibitory effects on the virus (1). A clinical study examined the effect of oyster mushrooms on dyslipidemia caused by antiretroviral drugs, but results showed no significant changes in non-HDL cholesterol after 8 weeks of therapy (27).

      • HPV: treats and prevents recurrence of HPV types 6 and 11 that cause genital warts (1).

    • Bacterial infections: broad-spectrum antibacterial activity in vitro against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans (3,7,28), Helicobacter pylori (9).

    • Parasitic infections: in vitro activity against Plasmodium falciparum, Leishmania major, Trypanosoma cruzi (29), in vivo activity against Plasmodium berghei (29).

    • Opportunistic infections: reduces the incidence of infections and secondary morbidity in patients with Crohn's disease (30).

  • Neurodermatitis/atopic dermatitis: improves symptoms in patients with atopic dermatitis (6,31).

  • Gut health (3,7,32):

    • Prebiotic: degrades lignins and facilitates the absorption of fiber in the intestine by up to 78% (1).

    • Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): shows clinical improvements in Crohn’s disease patients and mice with induced ulcerative colitis.

  • Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects:

    • Autoimmune diseases, e.g., rheumatoid arthritis in animal studies (3,32).

    • Anti-aging effect through increased activity of antioxidant enzymes (2,3,5).

  • Osteoporosis (3,7).

  • Neuroprotective: pleuran showed promising trends in animal studies (8) and a clinical study (33) regarding cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease.

  • Fibrinolytic effect (9).

  • Antiallergic effect due to β-glucans (9).

  • Traditional uses:

    • In TCM, added to Tendon Easing Powder to relieve inflammation and pain in tendon and muscle ailments (1,6,7).

    • Nerve tonic (1).

    • Lowering cholesterol (1), hyperlipidemia (34).

    • Diabetes (34).

    • Cancer (34).

    • Treating infections (34).

 

Side effects

  • Allergic reactions to spore exposure: About 10% of North Americans and Europeans are allergic to oyster mushroom spores. This is particularly common among workers who collect mushrooms indoors, with sensitivity often increasing with continued exposure. Symptoms include fever, headaches, congestion, coughing, sneezing, nausea, and general malaise (1,4).

  • Hemolysis: In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that oyster mushrooms contain the toxin pleurotolysin (syn. ostreolysin), which, when administered intravenously, can cause hemolysis, hyperkalemia, bradycardia, myocardial ischemia, and respiratory arrest (1,33).

References

  1. Rogers RD. The fungal pharmacy: the complete guide to medicinal mushrooms and lichens of North America. Berkeley, Calif: North Atlantic Books; 2011. 591 p.

  2. Bianchi I, Marrocchesi R. Guarire con i funghi medicinali: proprietà terapeutiche e istruzioni per l’uso dei 12 funghi medicinali più importanti. Treviso: Editoriale Programma; 2015.

  3. Rebensburg P, Kappl A. Gesund mit Heilpilzen: Immunsystem stärken, Krankheiten heilen und Beschwerden lindern. München: riva; 2020. 271 p.

  4. Stamets P. Growing gourmet and medicinal mushrooms =: Shokuyō oyobi yakuyō kinoko no saibai. 3rd ed. Berkeley, Calif: Ten Speed Press; 2000. 574 p.

  5. Martin Powell. Medicinal mushrooms. [Internet]. Place of publication not identified: Mycology Press; [cited 2021 Dec 27]. Available from: https://www.hoopladigital.com/title/11571096.

  6. Haertel B, Rimböck M, Neuerer T. Vitalpilze – modulierend - aufbauend - stärkend. Salzburg: Druckerei Roser GmbH; 2019.

  7. Guthmann J. Heilende Pilze: die wichtigsten Arten der Welt: Beschreibung - Inhaltsstoffe - Wirkung. 2., aktualisierte und erweiterte Auflage. Wiebelsheim: Quelle & Meyer Verlag; 2021. 446 p.

  8. Rai SN, Mishra D, Singh P, Vamanu E, Singh MP. Therapeutic applications of mushrooms and their biomolecules along with a glimpse of in silico approach in neurodegenerative diseases. Biomed Pharmacother. 2021 May;137:111377.

  9. Badalyan SM, Barkhudaryan A, Rapior S. Recent Progress in Research on the Pharmacological Potential of Mushrooms and Prospects for Their Clinical Application. In: Agrawal DC, Dhanasekaran M, editors. Medicinal Mushrooms [Internet]. Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2019 [cited 2021 Dec 27]. p. 1–70. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-13-6382-5_1.

  10. Poniedziałek B, Siwulski M, Wiater A, Komaniecka I, Komosa A, Gąsecka M, et al. The Effect of Mushroom Extracts on Human Platelet and Blood Coagulation: In vitro Screening of Eight Edible Species. Nutrients. 2019 Dec 12;11(12)

  11. Ramesh S, Majrashi M, Almaghrabi M, Govindarajulu M, Fahoury E, Fadan M, et al. Overview of Therapeutic Efficacy of Mushrooms. In: Agrawal DC, Dhanasekaran M, editors. Medicinal Mushrooms [Internet]. Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2019 [cited 2022 Jan 16]. p. 103–41. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-13-6382-5_3.

  12. Dicks L, Ellinger S. Effect of the Intake of Oyster Mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus) on Cardiometabolic Parameters-A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials. Nutrients. 2020 Apr 17;12(4)

  13. Schneider I, Kressel G, Meyer A, Krings U, Berger RG, Hahn A. Lipid lowering effects of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) in humans. Journal of Functional Foods. 2011 Jan;3(1):17–24.

  14. Jayasuriya WJABN, Wanigatunge CA, Fernando GH, Abeytunga DTU, Suresh TS. Hypoglycaemic activity of culinary Pleurotus ostreatus and P. cystidiosus mushrooms in healthy volunteers and type 2 diabetic patients on diet control and the possible mechanisms of action. Phytother Res. 2015 Feb;29(2):303–9.

  15. Ganesan K, Xu B. Anti-Obesity Effects of Medicinal and Edible Mushrooms. Molecules. 2018 Nov 5;23(11)

  16. Choudhury M, Rahman T, Kakon A, Hoque N, Akhtaruzzaman M, Begum M, et al. Effects of Pleurotus ostreatus on Blood Pressure and Glycemic Status of Hypertensive Diabetic Male Volunteers. Bangladesh J Med Biochem. 2013 Jan 13;6(1):5–10.

  17. Jaroslaw Pasnik, Agnieszka Ślemp, Agnieszka Cywinska-Bernas, Krzysztof Zeman1, Milos Jesenak. Preventive effect of pleuran (β-glucan from Pleurotus ostreatus) in children with recurrent respiratory tract infections-open-label prospective study. Current Pediatric Research [Internet]. 2017;21(1). Available from: https://www.alliedacademies.org/abstract/preventive-effect-of-pleuran-betaglucan-from-pleurotus-ostreatus-in-children-with-recurrent-respiratory-tract-infectionsopenlabelr-6313.html.

  18. Jesenak M, Urbancikova I, Banovcin P. Respiratory Tract Infections and the Role of Biologically Active Polysaccharides in Their Management and Prevention. Nutrients. 2017 Jul 20;9(7)

  19. Bergendiova K, Tibenska E, Majtan J. Pleuran (β-glucan from Pleurotus ostreatus) supplementation, cellular immune response and respiratory tract infections in athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2011 Sep;111(9):2033–40.

  20. Minov J, Bislimovska-Karadzhinska J, Petrova T, Vasilevska K, Stoleski S, Mijakoski D. Effects of Pleuran (Β-Glucan from Pleurotus Ostreatus) Supplementation on Incidence and Duration of COPD Exacerbations. Open Access Maced J Med Sci. 2017 Dec 15;5(7):893–8.

  21. Stajić M, Vukojević J, Ćilerdžić J. Mushrooms as Potential Natural Cytostatics. In: Agrawal DC, Dhanasekaran M, editors. Medicinal Mushrooms [Internet]. Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2019 [cited 2021 Dec 27]. p. 143–68. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-13-6382-5_4.

  22. Nowakowski P, Markiewicz-Żukowska R, Bielecka J, Mielcarek K, Grabia M, Socha K. Treasures from the forest: Evaluation of mushroom extracts as anti-cancer agents. Biomed Pharmacother. 2021 Nov;143:112106.

  23. Jedinak A, Sliva D. Pleurotus ostreatus inhibits proliferation of human breast and colon cancer cells through p53-dependent as well as p53-independent pathway. Int J Oncol. 2008 Dec;33(6):1307–13.

  24. Mishra V, Tomar S, Yadav P, Singh MP. Promising anticancer activity of polysaccharides and other macromolecules derived from oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sp.): An updated review. Int J Biol Macromol. 2021 Jul 1;182:1628–37.

  25. Wong JH, Ng TB, Chan HHL, Liu Q, Man GCW, Zhang CZ, et al. Mushroom extracts and compounds with suppressive action on breast cancer: evidence from studies using cultured cancer cells, tumor-bearing animals, and clinical trials. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2020 Jun;104(11):4675–703.

  26. Urbancikova I, Hudackova D, Majtan J, Rennerova Z, Banovcin P, Jesenak M. Efficacy of Pleuran (β-Glucan from Pleurotus ostreatus) in the Management of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infection. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2020;2020:8562309.

  27. Abrams DI, Couey P, Shade SB, Kelly ME, Kamanu-Elias N, Stamets P. Antihyperlipidemic effects of Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushrooms) in HIV-infected individuals taking antiretroviral therapy. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2011 Dec;11(1):60.

  28. Younis AM, Wu F-S, El Shikh HH. Antimicrobial Activity of Extracts of the Oyster Culinary Medicinal Mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus (Higher Basidiomycetes) and Identification of a New Antimicrobial Compound. Int J Med Mushrooms. 2015;17(6):579–90.

  29. Abugri DA, Ayariga JA, Tiimob BJ, Yedjou CG, Mrema F, Witola WH. Medicinal Mushrooms as Novel Sources for New Antiparasitic Drug Development. In: Agrawal DC, Dhanasekaran M, editors. Medicinal Mushrooms [Internet]. Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2019 [cited 2022 Jan 16]. p. 251–73. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-13-6382-5_9.

  30. Batovsky M. Beta-(1,3/1,6)-D-glucan Helps to Decrease Opportunistic Infections in Crohn’s Disease Patients Treated with Biological Therapy. Arch Clin Gastroenterol. 2015 Jun 26;005–8.

  31. Jesenak M, Urbancek S, Majtan J, Banovcin P, Hercogova J. β-Glucan-based cream (containing pleuran isolated from pleurotus ostreatus) in supportive treatment of mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis. J Dermatolog Treat. 2016 Aug;27(4):351–4.

  32. Dr Walter Ardigò. Healing with Medicinal Mushrooms. A practical handbook. Youcanprint; 2017. 394 p.

  33. Remya VR, Chandra G, Mohanakumar KP. Edible Mushrooms as Neuro-nutraceuticals: Basis of Therapeutics. In: Agrawal DC, Dhanasekaran M, editors. Medicinal Mushrooms [Internet]. Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2019 [cited 2022 Jan 16]. p. 71–101. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-13-6382-5_2.

  34. Richard Bray. Medicinal Mushrooms: A Practical Guide to Healing Mushrooms (Urban Homesteading). Independently published; 2020. 229 p.